Historical Chronology of the Monacan Indian Nation
by Karenne Wood & Diane Shields
1600-1700
1607 – Ten days after arriving at Jamestown, English colonists under Newport visit the Powhatans and inquire about the country of the Monacans. A local chief, Pawatah, stated that he did not wish to lead the English to the Monacans because they were his enemy and in fall they “raided his Countrye”. Barbour, Philip L. 1969:88, cited in Hantman, Jeffrey. 1990. “Between Powhatan and Quirank: Reconstructing Monacan Culture and History in the Context of Jamestown.” American Anthropologist 92 (3); pp.676-90.
1608 – Capt. John Smith engaged in hostilities with Piedmont Indians near the falls of the James, and took a Monacan captive, named Amorolek, who had been wounded in the fight. The captive told of three worlds: the Powhatans, Monacans and Massawomacks (Iroquoian? Lived on a great water). He also stated that he was from Hassininga and mentioned three other towns: Stegara, Tauxuntania, and Shakahonea. They were going to Mohaskahod, which was a hunting town. Barbour 1986:II:175-76.
Smith records Monacan towns on his map. In his descriptive notes, Smith states that the Monacans’ chief town is at Russawmeake, and the nations of Mouhemenchughes, Massinacacks, Monahassanuggs, and others pay them tribute. At the head of the Tappahannock River live the Mannahoacks, to whom the Tauxnitanias, the Shackaconias, the Outponcas, the Tegoneaes, the Whonkentyaes, the Stegarakes, the Hassinnungas, and others pay tribute. All of these are confederates with the Monacans, he states, though their languages differ (but as Hantman notes, do they differ from one another, or from the Powhatans? this is not clear. Hantman, “Between Powhatan and Quirank”). Barbour, Philip L. 1986 (ed.). The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580-1631), Vol 1, 165. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
The five towns (Mowhemenchouch, Massinacock, Rassawek, Monahassanaugh, Monasukapanough) were located on the James and Rivanna rivers. Bushnell, David I., Jr. “Five Monacan Towns in Va., 1607”. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, V 82 (12) Nov. 18, 1930.
Smith describes Newport’s next expedition to the Monacan area, where they discovered two towns, Monhemencouch and Massinacack. The people treated them neither good nor bad, but for security they captured a petty chief and led him bound to conduct them on the way. Barbour 1986:I:238.
1650 - See Alvord, Clarence and Lee Bidgood, First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region. Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., for clear analysis of Bland and Wood’s journey “The Discovery of New Britainne”.
1651 – John Farrer publishes map indicating that the Monacans stayed in the Piedmont but shifted territory somewhat. In Williams, Edward. 1650. Virginia: More Especially the South Part Thereof, Rich and Truly Valued. London, 3rd ed. Also in Bland, Edward. The Discovery of New Britainne. Ref?
1654 – Nahyssan and Manahoac settled near the falls of the James River. They asked the colony for protection, but the English and Pamunkey objected to their presence. Mouer, L. Daniel. 1983. “A Review of the Archeology and Ethnohistory of the Monacans.” In Piedmont Archeology, J. Mark Wittkofski and Lyle E. Browning, eds. Archaeological Society of Virginia, Richmond. Special Publication No. 10, pp. 1-39. A force of English with Powhatan allies, under the Pamunkey chief Totopotamoi, went against them and were badly defeated. Totopotamoi was killed. Swanton, Indians of the Southeastern United States; also Bushnell, Five Monacan Towns.
1661 – A Northhampton County court record shows that Manokins, along with Nanticokes, Wiccocomicos, Traskokins, and Anamessicks, sent tribute to the colonial government through the Onancocks and Occohannocks. Rountree, Helen. 1990. Pocahontas’ People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia Through Four Centuries. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, p. 95.
1670 – John Lederer notes that in the Highlands live the Mahoc, Nuntaneuck (Nuntaly), Nahyssan, Sapon, Managog, Mangoack, Akentzy, and Monakin. “One language is common to them all, though they differ in Dialects.” Also discusses burial practices and praises their oratorical skills. On his second expedition he marched toward the Monacans from the falls of the James on May 20 and two days later (only 20 miles) was “welcomed by them with Volleys of Shot.” (at Mowhemencho, or Manakin). He located Mahoc on the right bank of the James a mile south of present Goochland town (Massinacack). They continued to hack their way due west through the mountains. On June 3 came to the South branch of the James and were still afraid of Mahock Indians. He described torrents made by rocks and shelves forcing the water of the James into narrow channels (the Gorge?) in the extreme corner of Buckingham County. On June 9 he reached the Saponi Indians. The village was on a branch of the Roanoke River, on Otter Creek in Campbell County, near Altavista (Mooney). He then went to Occaneechi Island on the Roanoke River near Clarksville, which he described. This village site is now under water. Although well treated, he left them abruptly after they “barbarously murdered” a visiting party of Rickohockan Indians. He found the Eno (Oenaock) in NC and noted quantities of salt cakes, which he believed were mined nearby. He then proceeded to the Catawbas, located near their present location at Rock Hill. Came back by a different route and found the Tuscaroras east of Raleigh. Also noted that the Tutelos (Toteros) were in NC at this time. Rights and Cumming. 1958. The Discoveries of John Lederer. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville.
Check “Fauquier’s Aborigines,” Bulletin of the Fauquier Historical Society, I (Aug 1921), 3.
See Alvord, Clarence and Lee Bidgood, First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region. Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., for clear analysis of Lederer’s journeys, as well as Batts and Fallam (1671), and Needham and Arthur (1673).
1671 – Saponis found by Batts and Fallam in the location near Altavista described by Lederer. Also visited the Hanahaskis (Nahyssan, Monahassanughs) located about 25 miles northwest, possibly on Long Island. Went on another 80 miles to the Totero town, located on a branch of the Roanoke, west of Hanahaskis. Explored further, returning to Toteras, & found a Mohekan Indian who had come to Toteras to learn the whites’ intentions. The Indian said they were only from the mountains halfway to the place where Mohekans now lived, and beyond them was a plain, where the next town was, and an abundance of Salt. “Explorations Beyond the Mountains”, Wm & Mary Qu., also Rights and Cumming. 1958. The Discoveries of John Lederer. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville.
1673-1674 – James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, sent by Abraham Wood, began an expedition west from Fort Henry in April 1673, but they were stopped by Occaneechi Indians before reaching the mountains, and returned. They set out again on May 17, encountering a group of traveling Cherokees. Needham and Arthur accompanied them to their village in the mountains (near Rome, Georgia). Needham took 12 Cherokees to Fort Henry and left Arthur in the village to learn the Cherokee language. When Needham went back to get Arthur, he was murdered by his Ocaneechi guide, Indian John, or Hasecoll. The guide told the Cherokees to also kill Arthur, but he escaped through the intervention of the Cherokee chief, who followed Arthur to Fort Appomattox, passing the Monacans at the James River village. Alvord, Clarence and Lee Bidgood. First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region. Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company.
1675 – Saponis moved to a smaller island next to the Occaneechi near Clarksville to escape Iroquois (now covered by Buggs Island Lake at the confluence of the Dan and Staunton Rivers). Houck & Maxim 1993, p. 28.
1676 – Nathaniel Bacon travels to the village of the Ocaneechi intent on eradicating Va. Indians. The Ocaneechi agree to raid the forts of the Susquehannocks, 5 and 10 miles distant. The Occaneechi are aided by 6 Manakin Indians that were imprisoned in the Susquehannock forts. The Manakin and others travel with the Ocaneechi back to the Ocaneechi fort in the Roanoke river. Bacon then starts an argument with Persicles, king of the Ocaneechis. An Englishman is killed, and the English then attack the Ocaneechis, murdering most of them, including women & children. The fight lasts all night and into the next day. Washburn, Wilcomb. 1957. The Governor and the Rebel.
1677 – Articles of Peace, Treaty of Middle Plantation, made Virginia Indians subjects of the King, paying rent and tribute. It also prevented colonists from settling within three miles of an Indian town. The treaty includes the signature (like a large E) of Shurenough King of the Manakins; also signed by Mastegonoe, king of the Saponis, and his chief man Tachapoake. Treaty was between Charles II and 12 Indian Kings and Chief Men. Virginia Colonial Records, Va Mag Hist & Bio, 14 (3) p 264-296A.
1682 – Testimony of John Taliaferro, who accompanied Cadwalader Jones as commander of the Rappahannock Rangers, suggests that Monacans were living in the foothills of the Blue Ridge at this time. Bushnell, David I. 1935. “The Mannahoac Tribes in Virginia, 1608,” pp. 9, 15.
1700-1800
1700 – Manakin Town occupied by French Huguenots. Winfree, R. Westwood. 1975. “Monacan Farm, Powhatan County, Va.”. (Swanton, Indian Tribes of North America, indicates 1699, but this appears erroneous, because the Huguenots did not leave France until 1700.)
1701 – Lawson finds Saponi, Toteras, and Keyauwees on the Yadkin River near Salisbury, NC. The Ocaneechis were located nearby. Lawson, John. 1903. Lawson’s History of North Carolina. Charlotte: Observer Printing House.
1702 – Francis Louis Michel reported on a 40-member delegation of Indians from 4 unnamed tribes (Powhatan), describes a hunter he saw at Manigkinton (Manakin) and stated that Indians were bringing game, rum and corn-filled pottery to the French Huguenot settlement at Manakin. He includes a drawing of the hunter. He also noted that Monacans lived in the Manakin town until, having inflicted injury of Christian colonists, Col. Born all but destroyed them and their settlement. Translator identifies Born as perhaps Byrd or Claiborne. The Indians who were not present at the time of the attack still camped nearby in the summer and came often to visit. Hinke, William J., ed. “Report of the Journey of Francis Louis Michel from Bern, Switzerland to Virginia, October 2, (1) 1701-December 1, 1702: Part 2.” Va Mag Hist Bio 24 (2) 119-135.
1703 – Mannahoac Indian uprising occurred at “Matts” six miles above Fredericksburg, Indians burnt the stockade and buildings, then destroyed the buildings on Col. Carter’s quarters across the Rappahannock in Stafford County. Grinnan, AG. 1895. “The Last Indians in Orange County, Virginia.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 3;pp.189-91.
1705 – Robert Beverly states that the general language used among Indian nations in Virginia is that of the Occaneeches, a small nation, that this language is used as Latin in Europe. Beverly, Robert. 1705. The History of the Present State of Virginia
Race Law passed declaring the child of an Indian to be accounted as mulatto. See Hening’s Statutes-at-Large of Virginia, 3;p 252
1713 - Tuscaroras lose war in NC, flee to Va. & settle on the upper courses of the James and Roanoke Rivers (Va. Mag Hist & Bio, 12 p 344). A few years later most of them move to NY & become 6th Nation of Iroquoian Confederacy. Those who remained settled on “the upper courses of the James and Roanoke Rivers.” Kemper, Charles E. “Early Westward Movement of Virginia,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, V. 12, (4) p. 344, footnote).
1714 – Gov. Spotswood builds Ft. Christanna in Brunswick County. He offered to remit the tribute of skins (required by the Treaty of Middle Plantation) if the Indians would send their children to the College of William and Mary. Brock, RA, ed. The Official Letters of Alexander Spotswood, 1,2. Richmond: Virginia Historical Society. Because the southern tribes cited animosity with the Siouans, they continued to attend at William & Mary after Spotswood built Fort Christanna. He established an “Indian Company” of white soldiers to build & maintain fort, kept 12 men & 5 cannon at fort. Induces Saponis to settle near fort, send about 70 Indian children to school under Rev. Charles Griffin. Ref. To Germanna settlement as a means of keeping the Indians there in fear, just as at Christanna.
1716 – John Fontaine traveled with Gov. Spotswood to Ft. Christanna. Described Saponey Indians as always peaceful, about 200 persons. Some notes on their language included, described some customs & dress. Journal of John Fontaine
1717-1718 – A delegation of Catawbas came to Christanna, bringing children to be educated. A party of Senecas attacked and killed 5 Catawbas, wounded 2, and captured others. Brock, RA, ed. The Official Letters of Alexander Spotswood, 1,2. Richmond: Virginia Historical Society. Sortly after the assault, the Virginia legislature repealed the charter of the fort, and it was disbanded.
1720s –A Scottish hunter and trader named Hughes sets up a trading post above the falls of the James, ½ mile up Otter Creek (where is now a recreational lake and campground). Hughes’ wife was Nicketti, was the full-blooded daughter of Opechancanough, chief of the Powhatan confederacy and the brother of Chief Powhatan. Hughes’ grandson, Robert Davis, developed a tract of land further down the James and was considered a friend to the local Indians. He established a trading post near the junction of the Pedlar and James Rivers. It is believed that he was not molested by the Indians because he was Quaker, or because the Davis clan claimed Indian heritage. Horner, John V. & P.B. Winfree, Jr. The Saga of a City, 1786-1936. Lynchburg Sesquicentennial Association, Inc.: Lynchburg, p. 12. One of his descendants was Elizabeth Burks Cabell, wife of Dr. William Cabell, the first to patent lands in present Amherst County. Elizabeth oversaw her husband’s lands during his many absences and “it was knowledge among the neighboring Indians of this descent which protected her husband while locating these lands, and herself while she was managing them in his absence.” Brown, Alexander. 1939. Cabells and Their Kin. Garrett and Massie, Inc., Richmond, p. 57.
1722 – Treaty of Albany. Gov. Spotswood negotiates to save Va. Indians from extinction by Iroquoian tribes. Kemper, Early Westward Movement of Va.
The Tributary Indians protected by the treaty were the Nottaways, Nansemonds, Meherrins, Pamunkeys & Chickahomineys plus the tribes living at Ft. Christanna – Saponis, Ocheneeches, Stengenocks, Meipontskys & Toteros. Colonial History of New York, Vol V, pp 655-677.
1728 – Byrd gives an account of the Saponi’s wanderings. Byrd, Histories of the Dividing Line. Reported that the Wm & Mary School for Indians was originally intended as a place to hold hostage the children of the Great men of the Indians, to keep them peaceful. He took Ned Bearskin, a Saponi from Christanna, as a guide and hunter for their surveying expedition. Described encountering buffalo twice on their trip, and a number of bears, no Indians though. A lengthy and fanciful account of Bearskin’s religion is included. Also states that the Tuscaroras formerly had 7 towns before the war which they lost, and then most of them fled to the Senecas, “so that now there remain so few, that they are in danger of being quite exterminated by the Catawbas, their mortal enemies.” Describes the location of the Catawba town and how the Indians there catch alligators. Byrd, William, History of the Dividing Line.
1727 – Goochland County created out of Henrico
1729 – The Saponis at Christanna failed to plant corn at the usual time, and thereafter left the fort to join the Catawbas in SC, who had promised them sanctuary. Merrell, James. 1989. The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact Through the Removal. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, p. 131. Apparently the administration of Lt. Gov. William Gooch was informed that all Virginia Indians except the Pamunkeys had left the state:…ye remains of the Meherins are by running ye dividing line of North Carolina…& ye other petty (tribes)…being distributed by ye Tuscaroeres are retired out of Virg. to ye Catawbaus, so yt there remain only ye Pamunkies…” Va. Mag Hist & Bio, III, 120. Some of the Saponis stayed in the area, however, remaining at Christanna until 1740. Alexander, Edward P. 1971. “An Indian Vocabulary from Fort Christanna, 1716.” Va Mag Hist & Bio, 79:303-315.
Another group of the Monacan confederacy moved to the foothills of the Blue Ridge in Amherst County at this time. Merrell, James. 1987. “The Western World: The Evolution of the Carolina Piedmont, 1525-1725.” In The Siouan Project: Seasons I and II. Roy S. Dickens, H. Trawick Ward, and R.P. Steven Davis, eds. Research Laboratories of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, Monograph Series No. 1, Chapel Hill, pp. 19-28. Also see Bushnell, “The Indian Grave”, and Maxim, Mintcy, Unpublished Manuscript, University of Virginia.
1730 – A Spotsylvania court record describes some Saponis living on Spotswood’s land near Fox Neck who “go about and make a great deal of mischief.” Bushnell, David I. 1935. “The Mannahoac Tribes in Virginia, 1608.” Smithsonian Misc. Collections, 94 (8); p. 41.
1732 – Saponi group in SC leaves the Catawbas & returns to Va., where they settle in a fort on the Appomattox or Roanoke River. Pressure from the Iroquois causes the group to disperse. Most went north to join the Five Nations. Others went to North Carolina, some joining the Tuscaroras. Another group remained in Virginia. Merrell, James. 1989. The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact Through the Removal. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, p. 116.
1730s –A Lynchburg history book records hunters and trappers spreading out along Indian trails, while traders stayed near the James River. The Indian villages were along the river banks, “not far from where the main trail wound down the hill to a likely fording place. The trading posts would spring up nearby.” Horner, John V. & P.B. Winfree, Jr. 1936. The Saga of a City, 1786-1936. Lynchburg Sesqui-Centennial Association, Inc.: Lynchburg, p. 12.
The Saponi-Saura Trail was the great trading trail used by the traders, linking the original Saponi village near Charlottesville with the Tutelos near Salem, and the “new” Saponi location at the Staunton River, southwest of Lynchburg. This trail then passed to the Ocaneechi village near South Boston and on to the Sauras in the North Carolina Piedmont. It is roughly equivalent to Route 29 and was called the Great Trading Path by the English explorers and Quaker settlers. Brown, Douglas Summers. Lynchburg’s Pioneer Quakers. J.P. Bell Co. Inc: Lynchburg, p. 43.
“Of great importance was the connection of the Saura-Saponi Trail with the famous Warriors’ Road in the Valley of Virginia (roughly equivalent to Route 11). The connection paralleled the James River (roughly equivalent to Route 130), which can be called the Indian Grave Gap Trail (see Map 7, p. 36). From Indian Grave Gap it wound through the Gorge and connected to Warriors’ Road at Buchannan. Traders Hughes and Davis had their posts located along this important trail.” Houck & Maxim, 1993.
1740s - Charles Lynch, originally an indentured servant and the father of John Lynch, patents a large tract of land near Candler’s Mountain and builds a home called Chestnut Hill. His wife, Sarah Clark Lynch, later became the founder of the Quaker Church in this area.
1740 – 1742. 26 Saponey Indians lived on Col. Spotswood’s land near Germanna, north side of Rapidan. These are apparently the remnants of the Christanna Indians who did not join the Catawbas in SC. In 1742, 10 Sapony men were arrested for hog stealing & burning the woods, & were brought to Orange Court. They were ordered to leave the county, but tradition says that one man remained & lived for a long time on the Gwin Mountains below Rapidan Station. Last Indians in Orange County, Va Mag Hist & Bio(Dr. AG Grinnan)
Also in 1740, the Saponis and Tutelos who went to the Five Nations stopped in Shamokin, PA. They lived at Skogari on the north branch of the Susquehanna River in Columbia County, PA in 1748. Swanton, 1976. The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press. In 1753, they were admitted to the Iroquois confederacy. The Cayugas gave them some land to establish a village, located near Ithaca, NY. This town was destroyed in 1779 by Gen. Sullivan, and the Tutelos and Cayugas joined other groups in Canada. The Saponis parted company with them at Niagara Falls. The Tutelos built a town near Brantford but were devastated by two bouts of Asiatic cholera in 1832 and 1848. The Tutelo survivors joined the Cayugas. The “last full blood” Tutelo was Nikonha, interviewed by Horatio Hale in 1870, and the language was confirmed to be Siouan. Hale, Horatio.1883. , “The Tutelo Tribe and Language.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 31 (114); p. 8, 10.
1742 – A party of scouts explored the future Lynchburg area preceding the development of the Hat Creek Presbyterian colony (Campbell County) and found only one aged white man living within a 45-mile radius. “The region was inhabited by Indians who disputed its possession and offered combat with the whites from the very first. Some were of the Sapon nation but most of these red men were of the Tuscaroras tribe and were commonly known as Monocans…” Lynchburg’s Pioneer Quakers, J.P. Bell Co. Inc: Lynchburg, p. 43
Louisa County created out of Hanover
1744 – Albemarle County created out of Goochland & Louisa.
1750s – Thomas Jefferson describes a party of passing Indians on his property who visited the Monasukapanough burial mound, where they stayed for some time, and then returned to the “high road” and went on their way. Peden, William, ed. 1954. Thomas Jefferson: Notes on the State of Virginia. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., p. 100.
1750 – Settlement at Bethel established, present Amherst County near Potatoe Hill on the James. See Houck.
1755 – Lewis Evans published his map in Philadelphia showing Monacans and Tuscaroras located in Amherst, Nelson & Bedford area. Evans, Lewis. 1755. Analysis of a Map of the Middle British Colonies in America, 2nd ed., Philadelphia. Reprinted in Stevens, HN. 1920. Lewis Evans: His Map of the Middle British Colonies in America, London, Map No. 2.
1757 - John Lynch lives in old Ferry House. There was “one village on Judge Winston’s property near White Rock Hill and one on the opposite side of the river next to Madison. They were peaceful Indians belonging to the Monagan (sic) tribe.” Yancey credits Indians with helping Lynchburg residents to develop one of the largest tobacco markets in the world (sold Oronoco or dark-leaf tobacco). Yancey, Robert Faulkner. 1935. Lynchburg and Its Neighbors, J.W. Ferguson & Sons, Richmond, p 9.
“..As late as 1758 they (Monacans) were to prove so troublesome to the Quakers at Goose Creek (near Bedford) that that settlement had to be abandoned for two years before being reclaimed. When Lynch founded his ferry in 1757, a small tribe of them were still living a few miles away.” Lynchburg’s Pioneer Quakers, J.P. Bell Co. Inc: Lynchburg, p. 43. “It is quite possible that this can be explained by the Quakers choosing for settlement one of the best known Indian east and west Blue Ridge trail crossings and also their site was near an Indian burying ground of some significance.” The Saga of a City, p. 13.
1758 – March 19: ? wrote from Lancaster PA to G.A.T. that he had just returned from Winchester, Va. and a great many Indians were at Shamokin. A Mr. Carson was appointed to trade with them. Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 19, p.64. (Shomakin appears in the S. Higginbotham land grant 1791 as a creek near Spring Hill in Amherst County. Land Grant Books in Va. Land Office, Capitol building, Vol. 25, p.279.) But Shamokin is the name of the PA town where the Saponis and Tutelos moved from Virginia.
Land grant to Robert Johns, 92 ac., both sides of north branch of Porridge Creek B 33, p 495 (was still Albemarle County).
1761 – Amherst County created out of Albemarle
1769 – Land grant to Robert Johns, 218 ac. & 30 ac. on Porridge Creek B 38 p 751 & 754.
1773 - Land grant to William Evans, 360 ac. South branches of Elk Island Creek B 41 p 334.
1774 – Land deed to Hugh & Peter Rose, 140 acres lying under Indian Will’s Mountain. Amherst land record. Benjamin Evans patents lands in central part of Amherst on the Buffaloe River; their children settled on Johns Creek. Thomas Evans dies in 1774 bequeathing his land to Benjamin Evans. See Hix
1780 – Land grant to Stanhope Evans, 350 ac. Both sides of Johns Branch Book A p 634.
1782 – First National Census for Virginia records Benj. Evans & family, and Robert Johns & family. Evans listed as white w/ 6 mulatto children. Rawley Pinn also listed as white w/ 8 mulatto children.
Tax records begin for Evans & Johns families. Records that Evans & Johns both owned slaves at one time. See Hix
1786 – Town of Lynchburg established. The Saga of a City.
1790 – William Johns (nickname Mallory?), a free man of color, marries Molly Evans, and Ned Branham marries Molly’s sister, Nancy Evans. Houck, 1984, p. 52. Houck & Maxim 1993 p. 55. See Amherst County Deed Book, p. 307. William Johns “was sometimes called Portugue because of his broken English.” Ellis, Josiah R. “A Bit of History About the Amherst Indians.” New Era Progress, 1930. Monacan Tribal Archives.
. “It is common knowledge among older people of the area that the graveyard (at Bethel) contains a mixture of Whites and Indians who have lived in the vicinity for the past two centuries.” Houck & Maxim, 1993, p. 47.
1791 – Land grant to William Evans, 266 ac. On branches of Stovall & Juniper Creeks B 25 p 279.
1796 – Land grant to William Evans, 63 ¾ ac.On Indian Creek, branch of Piney River.
1800-1900
1805 – Across the James River from Lynchburg “lived a friendly tribe of Monocan Indians.” Lynchburg’s Pioneer Quakers, J.P. Bell Co. Inc: Lynchburg, p. 43.
1807 – Settlement on Johns Creek is called “Oronoco”, listed as a post town on a map of the county. (Named for a type of dark-leaf tobacco). Published in Gazeteer of Virginia, 1904, Wash. DC, reprinted 1994. Copy.
Nelson County created out of Amherst
1823 – Race Law passed declaring the child of an Indian, and the child, or great-grandchild of a Negro, to be accounted as mulatto. Hening, William Waller. The Statutes at Large. (Philadelphia: Thomas De Silver, 1823), Vol. IV, p. 252.
1831 – William Johns purchases 52 acres on Bear Mountain. Amherst land records.
1833 – William Johns purchases 400 more acres. This land becomes a settlement for Indian families in the area. “It was the people on Bear Mountain who cohered and maintained an identity through one another. It was also this community that became the target of prejudice and misunderstanding.” Maxim, unpublished, and Houck, 1984.
Wailes states that she interviewed an elderly man who told her that one of his kin had been kind to Indians in Mississippi. A delegation of Mississippi Indians visited his home on their way to a western reservation, and several remained. Wailes, pp. 9-10.
1850 – 29 families, mostly large, in the 1850 census, judging by surname. Price, see Hix
1856 – Will Johns divides his land among his sons and daughter. Five years later, at age 91, he dies.
1860 – Amherst County Clerks Office Register shows free persons of color with the following surnames: Pinn, Branham, Beverly, Peters, Johns (many listed), Paston, Sheppard, Wise, Tyler, Terry.
1864 – Map records man named Johns living on Salt Creek, ½ mile from then-existing town of Bethel and about a mile from Johns Creek. Gilmer, JF, Cartographer. Map of Amherst and Nelson County. (Richmond: Confederate Engineer Bureau, 1864), West Point Military Library.
1865 – After the Civil War, when schools were established for Negroes, people from the Indian settlement refused to attend them because of stigma. They had also refused to attend black churches since the 1830s and were not accepted at White churches. Whitehead, 1896. “Highly Interesting History of an Old Settlement of Cherokees” Richmond Times.
Around this time, the name “Free Issue” is used to denote freed slaves. The term comes to denote the Indian people of the Bear Mountain area, not the black people, and is used disparagingly. Houck & Maxim, 1993, 85
1868 - Land was donated for a log structure used as a meeting place for 350 people of the Indian community. Resulting from an Indian woman’s message to Whitehead, Judge Samuel Henry and Rev. Thomas Whitehead (brother of Edgar) began holding church services there (Gray 1908). They provided intermittent Baptist and Methodist ministers (Whitehead 1896).
1870 – Census records 12 people in 3 consecutive households in Amherst, all but one named Beverly, listed as Indians. Federal Census of Peddler District of Amherst County in Virginia. August 9, 1870. Dwellings 570, 572, 573.
1880 – Census records, 6 people named Johns in a single household listed as Indian, Amherst. Federal Census of Peddler District of Amherst County in Virginia. June 23, 1880. Dwelling 446.
1887 – Last parcel of land owned by Bear Mountain community is sold by Amherst County for non-payment of property taxes. Land record, Amherst. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1890s – Amherst County provides a part-time teacher for the Indian school. Attendance is poor, probably due to lack of transportation. Wagner, Isobel.
1896 – Article in Richmond Times describes Will Johns, age 97 (as the “last man”) and discusses an “old settlement of Cherokees in Amherst County.” Also described are John Redcross, William Evans, and Mallory Johns and their descendants. Describes missionary efforts among Amherst Indian community. Whitehead, Edgar. “Amherst County Indians,” Richmond Times, Richmond, VA, April 19, 1896. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1900-1950
1900 – No Indians listed on Amherst census.
1901 – Tooker publishes a scholarly but speculative analysis of the linguistic roots of Monacan tribal names. Tooker, William Wallace. 1901. The Algonquian Names of the Siouan Tribes of Virginia. Francis P. Harper, New York.
1907 – Arthur Gray begins construction of a mission building and accompanying missionary program. He states that the Indians have been in their present location for about 125 years, “among the hollows and foothills of the Blue Ridge.” He describes their physical appearance and demeanor and states that few of the people were legally married when he arrived. He also mentions “one very devout old Indian man” who sent him a letter which noted that he had been conducting Sunday school and prayer meetings for the group. Gray, Arthur. “A Virginia Tribe of Indians.” Southern Churchman, January 4, 1908, p. 6. Copy.
1908 - J.J. Ambler purchased ¼ acre across the creek, and the schoolhouse was extended and a church built on the land acquired by Ambler. Gray was impressed by the enthusiasm of the Indians, who worked to raise $350 of the money needed for the mission. Gray wrote that there were 150 children under age 16 “capable of taking a good education”, and there were about 325 people of the Indian community. He noted that the people were fond of painting themselves. Also, there were “two old Indian men, who for a number of years conducted a sort of Sunday-school and prayer meeting for their people. But these meetings were more in the nature of social gatherings and fighting grounds, or at best of reading lessons and musical concerts than religious gatherings.” Gray, Arthur. 1908. “Mission Work Among Some Cherokee Remnants in Virginia.” Diocesan Journal, Sept-Oct. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives. The new chapel was consecrated in October 1908. "“The Consecration of the Indian Chapel, Amherst County.” The Diocesan Journal, p. 12. Copy.
The ¼ acre tract was recorded in Amherst County as being conveyed to J.J. Ambler, Elisha Willis, William Adcox and Richard Lawless, Trustees. The three latter being of the Indian community, they were probably the “devout Indian men” mentioned above. Deed Book 93, p. 373. This is now known as Parcel No. 1, upon which the present church sits and which was retained by the Diocese when the other parcels were transferred to the Monacan Indian Tribe in 1995.
The Times Dispatch reports that Dr. Ennion G. Williams, State Health Commissioner, suggested playing a phonograph-recorded version of his lecture on tuberculosis prevention to a “tribe of Indians” located in Amherst. It states that at this time there are only two organized tribes of Indians in the state, one located in King William, and the other in Amherst. “Heart-to-Health Talk with Virginia Red Men.” Richmond Times Dispatch, August 25, 1908. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1910 – 7 Amherst Indians listed on census.
1911 – To advise the Smithsonian that “William Beverly of Chestnut can tell you about the Indian Tribe near this place.” (near Buena Vista). He was counted as Indian in the 1870 census of Amherst & was 19 years old then. Updike, JM, Response to a Circular Sent Out by John Wesley Powell and James Mooney, Unpublished Manuscript, National Anthropological Archives, Manuscript 2190, May 30, 1911. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1914 – The Rev. Lewis writes an article requesting funds for a second mission worker among the Indians of Amherst, stating that the community of 450 Indians is said to date back to the latter part of the 18th or early part of the 19th century. He states that during Gray’s tenure, Miss Cornelia Packard came to the mission for about five years, She worked there with Miss Spencer, a trained worker, until her health failed. In 1912 Miss Lucy Bloxton succeeded her, and has lived and worked alone since that time. “Lewis, Thomas Deane. “Some Virginia Indians.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, May, p. 341. Copy.
1914 – Bushnell publishes an article describing a number of families possessing Indian features in Amherst & suggests that among them live the last of the Monacan tribe. Bushnell, David. “The Indian Grave: A Monacan Site in Albemarle County, Virginia. William and Mary College Quarterly, Series 1, 23 (2), p.112.
1915 - An article in the Baltimore Sun states that 11 candidates were confirmed at the Indian mission in Amherst. “Confirms Indian Class.” The Baltimore Sun, October 17th, 1915, p. 2.
1916 – Miss Lucy Bloxton, Mission Worker, marries one of the men from the mission, named Adcock. “The white families in the neighborhood forced the couple to leave the community.” (Herbert Hicks reports hearing that the Adcock man was threatened with hanging unless he left the community.) Wagner, Isobel. February 1946. “Survey of St. Paul’s Mission,” in Reports of the Deaconesses. Roanoke: Episcopal Diocese of Southwest Virginia. Copy.
Sweet Briar College builds a mission house for the deaconesses administering the Indian mission. Sweet Briar students, called the “Bum Chums” visited the mission and helped organize activities for the people. “50th Anniversary of St. Paul’s Mission to be Celebrated this Sunday.” 1958. Amherst New Era-Progress. October 16. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1918 – Article in the Baltimore Sun reports that Arthur Beverly was captured and jailed for resisting the draft, and that he is one of eight who were hunted in the Amherst County mountains. They were said to be heavily armed and would resist arrest; they “belong to a small tribe of Indians who have lived about 10 miles from Lynchburg since the advent of the white man.” “Indians Resisting Draft”. Baltimore Sun, August 10, 1918, p. 3.
1920 – 304 Amherst Indians listed on census.
1921 – Isabel Wagner reports that about 500 people live in the mission community. Martin J. Bram offers a patronizing account of their conversational abilities. “Bear Mountain or Indian Mission: Unique Work Near Amherst.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, p. 5.
1922 - The Times-Dispatch reports that the Indian mission was helped by a congregational meeting at Ascension Episcopal, to promote the church’s program for the next three years. At this time, Dr. T.D. Lewis was the rector, and Miss Vera Tignor was succeeded by Miss Isabel Wagner (who had taught Indians in SD) at the mission, while Miss Jane Neely was in charge of the school.
“Indian Mission Aided by Recent Campaign.” Times-Dispatch, November 27, 1922, p. 3. Copy.
1923 – Rev. Josiah Ellis, census taker, talked with Paul Redcross, son of John Redcross, and later wrote that “he looked every inch an Indian.” Apparently a letter appeared in “Sunday’s paper” (of the SW Episcopalian?) stating that the Amherst Indians probably descended from the Pamunkey tribe and were not Cherokee “since there is nothing more heard of that theory now.” Ellis defends the Cherokee theory and states “that they were of pure Indian origin and remained so for years may not be doubted.” Ellis, Josiah R. “Letter to The Southwestern Episcopalian.” Dec. 5, 1922, p. 13.
Smith, 1993, documents correspondence between Walter Plecker, and Ivan McDougle, in which Plecker requests the research compiled by McDougle prior to publication of Mongrel Virginians, and McDougle’s refusal to provide it.
An article in The Southwestern Episcopalian discusses medical needs and nursing work at the Indian mission. “Bear Mountain Mission: To Heal the Body; to Save the Soul.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, November, p. 20.
1924 – Racial Integrity Law passed in Virginia. Required issuance of birth certificates for those born before 1912 and incorporated definitions of race from Code of Va. 1919, Sec. 57. It prohibited intermarriage between whites and those with any mixture of colored blood (more than 1/16). Smith 1993.
Walter Plecker writes to clerks of Amherst, Rockbridge and Augusta Counties requesting surnames of people claiming to be white or Indian but who should be classified as Negro, stating that there was a large number of these people in Amherst. Plecker, Walter. “Letter to Clerks of Rockbridge, Amherst and Augusta Counties.” John Powell Collection, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, April 29.
Plecker cites the “triple intermixture” in Amherst County as “the most undesirable racial intermixture known, and states that these “mongrels” are lazy and rely on the “guise of Indian Missions” for survival. Plecker, Walter. “Shall America Remain White?” Paper read before the Southern Medical Association. John Powell Collection, Alderman Library, University of Virginia,
November 11; and “Virginia’s Attempt to Adjust to the Color Problem.” Paper read before the American Public Health Association. John Powell Collection, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, October 13.
A ¼ acre tract was conveyed to J.J. Ambler, William Adcock and Richard Lawless, Trustees of Bear Mountain Mission of the Episcopal Church. Amherst County Deed Book 93, p. 373.
Sweet Briar College helps to build another school building and a parish house. “50th Anniversary of St. Paul’s Mission to be Celebrated this Sunday.” 1958. Amherst New Era-Progress. October 16.
Ella Pier reports that children are unable to get to the school because there is no bus; however, one boy walks nearly 5 miles every day, and others walk 3 miles to get there. The girls sew clothing for their own wear, and attend cooking classes. The Women’s Society sews together once a week. Pier, Ella. “Bear Mountain Mission, Amherst.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, 1924, p. 21. Copy.
1925 –Walter Plecker describes low moral standard, illegitimacy, & Army Draft Enlistment mental tests showing D or D- related to Oronoco Indians. “Fifth Pamphlet of the New Family Series, 1925, pp 15-19). See also Sherman, Richard B., The Last Stand: The Fight for Racial Integrity in Va. He also sends a letter to the Bureau of the Census stating that it is “entirely erroneous” to classify the Amherst group as Indian. “Letter from Walter Plecker,” Jan. 14, 1925, part of the Beale Papers, copy.
An article by Ellis (J.R.E.) in The Southwestern Episcopalian notes “the large majority of them show unmistakable signs of their Indian parentage.” Regarding the name of the mission, he states, “the proof of their claim is clear enough to justify the use of the name which is so distinctive.” November, p. 24. Copy.
1926 – Estabrook & McDougle publish a disparaging report on the Indian settlement, supported by the Carnegie Institution of Genetics, Washington DC. Estabrook, AH & McDougle, Ivan E. 1926. Mongrel Virginians. The Win Tribe. Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore.
Speck publishes negative review of Mongrel Virginians. Speck, Frank G. “Book Review of Mongrel Virginians,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, V 126, July 1926, 165-166.
Ella Pier reports on the Christmas celebration at Bear Mountain mission. Pier, Ella. “Bear Mt. Mission, Amherst.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, March, p. 19. Copy. The school teacher was Miss Margaret Viall, and 53 children were enrolled. Pier noted that the boys needed manual training, “to keep them in school longer than they now stay”. Pier, Ella. “Report of Christ’s Mission, Amherst.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, September, p. 17. Copy.
John Powell writes to the Times-Dispatch that a person (wishing his name to be withheld but familiar with the community at Amherst) sent him the following: “the name ‘Indian mission’ was not adopted as an ‘enticing idea’ to bolster up declining interest among the ‘Issues,’ but was used at the beginning because of the belief that the Indian type predominated among these people. The intermingling of the blood of three races in some of them was never denied, and there was not in the beginning, and there is not now, any idea in the minds of those in charge of the work of encouraging social aspirations…The mission for a number of years has been known as the ‘Bear Mountain Mission.’” Powell, John. “For Sake of Justice”. Richmond Times-Dispatch, March 3, 1926.
1928 – Bertha Wailes writes her Master’s thesis, in which she describes a deficient environment, rather than low intelligence, as responsible for the “backwardness” of the Amherst Indian community. She also cites isolation from the larger society and rejection by both blacks and whites as contributing factors. She indicates that many Indians worked shares as tenant farmers, and most were treated unfairly and paid poorly by white landlords. Some moved out of state to find better opportunities. Wailes, Bertha. “Backward Virginians: A Further Study of the Win Tribe.” Unpublished Master’s thesis, Alderman Library, University of Virginia.
1929 – Ella Pier reports that “as usual, quilts are being made for income.” Pier, Ella. “Christ Mission, Bear Mountain.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, March-April, p. 18. Copy.
1930 – Rev. Josiah Ellis writes an article stating that the Amherst “Indian Settlement” could not have originated from delegations of Cherokees enroute to Washington, because Will Johns patented land prior to the period of their visits to Washington. He further states that an Indian named Evans had settled on Buffalo River, and that Evans’ daughter married Mallory Johns, also called “Portugue” because of his broken English. He gives a number of marriage records in which the participants were deemed to be white, and notes that the Indians were permitted to purchase land, unlike the negroes. He states that the purpose of his article is to show that the “Indian Settlement” inhabitants were descended from Indians. Ellis, Josiah R. 1930. “A Bit of History about the Amherst Indians.” Reference? Copy, Monacan Archives.
A fire in 1930 destroys the church and parsonage. At this time Miss Brightsie Savage was the missionary there, having succeeded Miss Ella Pier. The article states that the mission “is rather unique in its character; the people served by the mission being of a racial type not often found in this section of the United States.” T.A.S. “The Indian Mission Burned.” Southern Churchman, Feb. 22, 1930. Copy. A letter from Brightsie Savage states that the mission continued its work despite its severe handicap, and attendance increased. “Still Carrying On.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, March 1930, p. 9. Copy. “Christ Mission – Bear Mountain, Near Amherst”. The Southwestern Episcopalian, June, p. 23. Copy.
All Indians listed on the 1930 census in Virginia have an asterisk accompanying their racial designation and a note stating that their Indian status was in question. This was a direct result of Plecker’s insistence that those who claim to be Indian should be classified as colored. (Rountree, 1990).
Monacan tribal members requested to be counted as Indian in the 1930 Census, see below for letters from Monacans. Beale, Calvin L. “Census Problems of Racial Enumeration”, In Thompson, ET & EC Hughes. 1958. Race: Individual and Collective Behavior. Free Press of Glencoe, NY, 537-540.
J.J. Ambler writes to census supervisor Ernest Duff stating that the “old Issues” are not Indian and asks him to come to Amherst to interview several of his cohorts for verification. “Letter from J.J. Ambler,” May 5, 1930. A letter to Duff from W.T. Adcox states that Mr. Ware, the enumerator, refused to enter a race for him or “any of my race of people” and he wanted to be counted as Indian, because “we are descendants of Indians.” “Letter from W.T. Adcox” May 7, 1930. Another letter to Duff from a Monacan states that “all the Branhams and Johns are descendants of Edmund Branham who was an Indian.” “Letter from Vane Branham,” May 12, 1930. Mr. Ware writes to the Bureau of the Census describing the tension in Amherst regarding the racial classification of the “Issues” and states that he prefers “leaving them for the Bureau of Census to classify.” “Letter from Julian M. Ware,” May 14, 1930. Duff writes a letter to Rev. J.R. Ellis of Amherst in which he states “these people which I have instructed shall be classified as mixed Indians, descendents of the Cherokee Tribe and…I find no reason why they should be otherwise reported.” “Letter from Ernest R. Duff,” May 28, 1930, All of the above letters included in part of the Beale Papers, sent by Calvin Beale to Prof. Helen Rountree, 1973, copy, Monacan Archives.
Virginia adopts the “One Drop Rule,” defining an Indian as a person with ¼ or more Indian blood and “no ascertainable negro blood, except for those living on Indian reservations. Murray, Paul T. 1987. “Who is an Indian? Who is a Negro?: Virginia Indians in the World War II Draft.” Va Mag Hist & Bio, 95 (2). Plecker interprets this law as “recognizing the residents of the reservations as Indians as long as they stay home but (as) negroes when they leave the Reservations” Plecker, Walter. “Letter to John Powell.” John Powell Collection, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, June 7.
Plecker begins compiling a “hit list” from research compiled by himself and an assistant in the Bureau, Eva Kelley. This list circulated among local registrars, doctors, nurses, clerks of courts, school superintendents, and public health workers, beginning in 1934. Plecker came to Amherst to collect names (Houck 1984:121), and he used numerous other records and documents to compile the list. Plecker, Walter. “Letter to E.B. Ford”, John Powell Collection, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, March 22, 1939.
1930s – Swanton publishes several accounts listing Monacans and the other subtribes from an anthropological perspective and offers information on their dress, habits and political organization. Swanton, Indians of the Southeastern United States, also The Indian Tribes of North America.
1931 – The mission home was rebuilt, and work on the church scheduled to begin. Neighbors and Sweet Briar students helped the mission. Ambler, J.J. “Among Our Women Workers.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, August 1931, p. 8. Copy.
A letter to the Director of the Census from Ernest Duff, census supervisor, discusses “the classification of 278 persons contained in the list of W.A. Plecker” and that the designation of Indian was given by Duff himself “after due investigation and observing these people.” He states that “the very clannish officials which I found in Amherst are inclined to oppress these people along with the connivence of some others up there. For instance, it was reported to me that this J.J. Ambler had at one time had an affair with one of this tribe and had been warned to keep away from their community, and ever since has devoted his every effort to persecute these people.” He states that several ministers can corroborate his position and closes with this remark: “I feel that should this colony of mixed Indians be listed as negroes, a grave injustice would be perpetrated upon a defenceless people.” “Letter from Ernest R. Duff”, part of the Beale Papers, copy Monacan Archives. Sent by Calvin Beale to Prof. Helen Rountree, 1973.
Plecker writes to the Bureau of the Census with a lengthy description of his version of Monacan history and his reasons for altering vital records for these people. “Letter from Walter Plecker.” January 5, 1931, part of the Beale Papers, copy.
1932 – The Southwestern Episcopalian reports that Sidney Johns was baptized. “He was caretaker of the church for seven years, serving part of the time under the first mission worker here, Miss Cornelia Packard.” March 1932, p. 12. Copy.
Members of the Lewis Women’s Circle of St. Paul’s Church in Lynchburg visited the Bear Mountain mission and donated clothing they made for a Lenten mission project. “Circle Visits Bear Mountain Mission.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, June-July 1932, p. 12.
1933 – The Southwestern Episcopalian reports that Miss Brightsie Savage and Miss Anne Lewis are assisting the mission, and 43 children attend the day school, while 76 attend the church school. “At Bear Mountain Mission”. The Southwestern Episcopalian, Oct.-Nov., 1933, p. 9. Copy.
1934 – Letter sent to Frank G. Speck from Samuel Johns, in which he claims to be a Tutelo Chief from the area of the Susquehanna. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Library. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
Brightsie Savage reports that 240 attended special church services, 54 children enrolled in the day school, 16 girls in the sewing class (they were making baskets as well as clothes). Savage, Brightsie. “Bear Mountain Mission.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, Feb-March, p. 8. Copy.
1937 – There are more than 200 people involved in the mission. “St. Paul’s Mission, Bear Mountain. The Southwestern Episcopalian, November. Copy.
1938 – Plecker writes to J.J. Ambler, thanking him for his assistance and states “…our office…will always declare the Branham family… as negroes, certainly as long as I am head of the office.” He also thanks Ambler for agreeing to testify that the Branhams are negroes. “Letter to J.J. Ambler,” May 27.
1939 – A report of the Christmas celebration at the mission. “Christmas at St. Paul’s Mission, Bear Mountain.” The Southwestern Episcopalian, February 1939, p. 6.
1941 – Louise Hix, research editor, Richmond, VA writes a paper about the Oronoco Indians. She states that “In the possession of Mrs. L. C. Whitehead is a paper regarding the Indian settlement of Oronoco, in which the family heads are given as William Evans and John Johns.” Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1940s – Orchard workers of white, Indian and Negro descent had to have three different lunch tables arranged for them. Wagner, Isobel. Survey—St. Paul’s Mission, Amherst, Virginia. On file at Southwestern Episcopal Diocese Headquarters, Roanoke, Va. (Roanoke, 1946).
1942 – Abraham Branham from Baltimore writes to Plecker requesting copies of his children’s birth certificates, on which they were classified as Indian. Plecker noted that the classification was incorrect and pasted a notice on the back of the certificates listing the relatives as “colored”.
Monacan people hired lawyers William Kinckle Allen from Amherst and John Randolph Tucker of Richmond, who wrote Plecker questioning the legality of his actions. Plecker admitted to Powell that he had done a lot of bluffing (Smith 1993) and eventually sent copies of the certificates requested by the lawyers, without the pasted notices. Plecker then secured a law legitiating his notices, which remained in effect until 1972 (Houck 1984:114, Rountree, Helen. 1986. “Ethnicity Among the ‘Citizen Indians’ of Tidewater Virginia, 1800-1930. In Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States. Frank W. Porter, III, ed. Greenwood Press, Inc: Westport, CT; pp.173-209).
1943 – Walter Plecker writes to F.C. Drummond, chairman of the Amherst County Draft Board, in which he agrees to help Drummond identify “pedigrees of mixed breeds.” Plecker, “Letter to F.C. Drummond”.
Homer Willis hired William Kinckle Allen on behalf of Winston and Roy Branham, classified as colored for the draft. The Amherst Draft Board changed its decision before the case went to court, allowing enlistment without racial designation.
In June, another case involving 7 Monacans went to the U.S. District Court. In Branham v. Burton, the judge sided with the Monacans. Later, the Draft Board decided to accept the racial classification provided by the registrant. Murray 1987.
1945 – The Trustees of the Funds of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Southwestern Virginia, Inc. are appointed as Trustee for the property of St. Paul’s Mission in Amherst County, in place of the Trustees of Bear Mountain Mission. Order of the Circuit Court of Amherst County, April 11, 1945.
The church acquires an acre of land, one mile south of Crawford’s store, for a cemetery.
Isabel Wagner writes a letter in which she states that in her long association with the people of St. Paul’s mission, she has never known them to associate with negroes, and that the Indian men served in white units during World War I. She repeatedly refers to the people as Indians. “Letter from Isabel Wagner.” June 4, 1945. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1946 –Isobel Wagner reports on her years as the worker at St. Paul’s Mission. At this time, several white churches and negro churches existed in the area, but the Mission people were not permitted to attend white schools or churches and refused to attend the negro schools and churches. They also refused medical treatment because they would not go to negro facilities. By 1946, the County was providing white teachers for the mission school; previously, the Episcoal Church supplied the teachers. In 1945 the owner of two fruit farms, who employed 13 Mission families, agreed to send a truck to the mission school every day to transport the children. The truck also provided transportation on Sunday for church and Sunday School. Since 1917, 24 families had left the area, leaving 42 families at the mission by 1946. Most of the families had been tenant farmers in 1917, but by 1945 they had changed to day work, cutting pulp wood and providing seasonal labor at the fruit farms. The people divided themselves into two classes, those with lighter and darker appearances, and the Presbyterian Church formed a separate mission and school at Pedlar Mills, 7 miles from the Johns’ Settlement, for “those with more Negroid appearances.” She states that the Racial Integrity Law caused great concern among the people, making it impossible to obtain licenses and other legal papers unless they agreed to the negro designation. She says “there are no marriages in the neighborhood,” and that many families left the state during WWII. During the harvest season, the farms had to set up three tables for mealtimes; one for white people, one for colored, and one for the Mission people. Problems of race affected every aspect of life at the Mission. She also states that one of the mission men, Bowman Knuckles, taught the service of evening prayer and also the Adult Class of the Sunday School. She includes in her report a map locating the families served by the mission, and a key which lists the names of head of household and number of adults and children in each household. She also includes a daily diary of her activities for February 1946. Wagner, Isobel. February 1946. “Survey of St. Paul’s Mission,” in Reports of the Deaconesses. Roanoke: Episcopal Diocese of Southwest Virginia. Copy.
A report of the Library of Congress shows the 500-600 “Amherst County Issues” and the 300+ “Rockbridge County Brown People” in their present locations and states that “the upland group shows no tribal organization but tends to retain traditions of Indian origin.” Gilbert, William Harlen, Jr. 1946. “Surviving Indian Groups of the Eastern United States.” Library of Congress, Washington, DC; pp. 408, 419. Copy.
1947 – D’Arcy McNickle, a Salish Indian from Montana, saw some of the children at the Episcopal School & requests the Cherokee Agency visit them because they appear to be Indian. Beatty, Willard W. “Letter to Joe Jennings.” Unpublished Manuscript. US Dept of the Interior, Office of Indian Affairs, Chicago, March 25, 1947. Copy.
Chief Jarrett Blythe of the Eastern Band of Cherokee visits the mission and “would be willing to accept these children in the Cherokee School. Jennings, Joe, “Letter to Willard W. Beatty”. Unpublished Manuscript. Cherokee Indian Agency, Cherokee, NC, April 22, 1947. Copy.
1948 – 326 Indians connected to the mission and school; 200 others had moved away to MD and NJ since the start of draft registration in 1940. Price, Edward Thomas, Jr. 1950. Mixed Blood Populations of Eastern United States as to Origins, Localizations, and Persistence. PhD Dissertation, University of California, pp. 268-275.
1950-
1951 - Another acre near the mission is purchased for construction of a playground. Deed Book 154, p. 492, October 23. “50th Anniversary of St. Paul’s Mission to be Celebrated this Sunday.” 1958. Amherst New Era-Progress. October 16. Copy.
1952 – Alfred Percy publishes Exploring the Present and Past Central Virginia Blue Ridge, a chatty tourist book of mostly no use, but he does mention a herd of elk living near Peaks of Otter in 1952. He also states that “at the time of the settling up of this area there were only a few scattered groups of Indians—these had somehow escaped capture during the wars with their hereditary enemies from the North. These latter Indians had obtained muskets first and so cleaned out most of the Monacans of the Piedmont and the Valley before the settlers came.” (Italics mine).
1955 – Edmond Branham celebrates his 106th birthday. “Edmond Branham, 106 Years Old, Is Celebrating Birthday.” Check Baltimore paper, but of no historical use.
1956 – Article in the Amherst paper describes mission schoolchildren as “not white or Negro, though classified as Negro.” It does not mention that they were Indian. It did, however, address the question of secondary education for the mission children. “Knotty Problems for School Board. Amherst New Era-Progress. October 4.
Florence Cowan writes a letter to the editor, in which she says that regarding secondary education, a few students attend Berea, a private school in Maryland, while others are enrolled in county correspondence courses. “Episcopal Church Backs Request, May 2; Cowan, Florence, “Letter to the Editor” Amherst New Era-Progress, October 11.
Gertrude Whitehead writes a letter to the editor, in which she says that the law requires children to attend school until age 16, but these children have nowhere to go. Amherst New Era-Progress, October 25.
J.J. Ambler writes to Cowan, vehemently denying that there is any Indian heritage in the “issues” and calls them “cowards”. (Houck states later than he is in denial.) Ambler, “Letter to Florence Cowan,” Dec. 28, 1956. Monacan Tribal Archives. Cowan and Ambler become adversaries (see Houck & Maxim, 1993, p. 110.)
1957 – The Amherst County School Board lists the mission school with white schools (September 13, 1956; October 10, 1957).
1958 – A two-room addition to the schoolhouse is built, and the playground is enlarged. The school has three teachers paid by the county. The mission has two resident workers, Deaconesses Dorothy Groff and Florence Cowan. The mission celebrates its 50th anniversary. “50th Anniversary of St. Paul’s Mission to be Celebrated this Sunday.” 1958. Amherst New Era-Progress. October 16. “Episcopal Church News.” 1958. Amherst New Era-Progress, November 13.
Beale published account of Monacans requesting to be counted as Indian in 1930 census. Beale, Calvin L. “Census Problems of Racial Enumeration”, In Thompson, ET & EC Hughes. 1958. Race: Individual and Collective Behavior. Free Press of Glencoe, NY, 537-540.
1963 – Amherst County proposes a $30,000 bond to build a 76-pupil school for the mission community. Cowan called the proposal a “pacifier” (Cowan, “Letter to the Editor”, April 4, 1963) and surprised the county with 23 applications for transfer from the mission school to white schools. The Episcopal Church backed Cowan and the Indian people, and the School Board sent the 23 applications to the Pupil Placement Board in Richmond. “Mixed Race Applies for Amherst Schools”. The Roanoke Times. April 3, 1963. Copy; “Episcopal Church Backs Request of ‘Free Issues’ to Integrate.” The Daily Advance. Lynchburg, VA, April 2. Copy; Dewar, Helen. “Nobody Wants Amherst Indians—29 ‘Free Issues’ Demand Transfer to White Schools.” The Washington Post. Washington, DC. May 26. Copy.
Amherst County voted down the bond proposal. “Voters Smother Bond Proposal” Amherst New Era-Progress, April 11. Copy. In June, the placement board approved the applications for transfer, and more applications were approved the following month (Houck 1984:109). The mission school closed and the children entered the public school system.
A local genealogist writes that “a small tribe, supposed to be Tuscaroras that was left behind in the migration of Indians…made their home in the Blue Ridge close to the Amherst County line.” Diehl, George West. 1963. “Letter to Claude Medford, Jr.” Unpublished Manuscript. Dundee Plantation, Lexington, VA, April 11, 1963. Monacan Tribal Archives.
1964 – Virginia Branham of the tribe makes and sells baskets of honeysuckle vine and of oak splints, and corn husk dolls. Branham, Virginia. “Letter to Medford”. Unpublished Manuscript. Monacan Tribal Archives, Amherst, VA. March 11, 1964.
1968 – John Haraughty, a captain in the Episcopal Church Army, came to the Bear Mountain mission and was instrumental in outlawing the warning labels on birth certificates in 1972(Houck & Maxim, 1993:125). He obtained a Federal Farm and Home Loan to purchase 200 acres between Bear Mountain and High Peak, where 29 homes were built at Orchard Hill Estates (Houck, 1984:115).
1969 – St. Paul’s Mission begins holding its annual Homecoming bazaar and reunion.
The Washington Post reports about “Virginia’s Lost Tribe: The Amherst Cherokee.” June 15, 1969, which states that the mission people wanted to be identified as Indian.
1970 – A 5.02 acre parcel is purchased by the Trustees for a recreational area near the mission. Deed Book 294, p. 18, July 15.
1979 – A CETA Native American grant establishes the Monacan Co-Operative Pottery at St. Paul’s Mission. Some important pieces are produced, including at least one sold to the Smithsonian. A brochure is published by Harold Waller, Design Center, Virginia Commonwealth University. Monacan Tribal Archives.
A .45 acre parcel is purchased by the church Trustees. Deed Book 428, p. 293, June 13.
1980 – The mission added a parish hall (Houck 1984:117).
1981 – The Mattaponi-Pamunkey-Monacan Consortium was created and since reorganized as a nonprofit corporation, serving as an administrative vehicle to obtain funds from the Native American Program of the JTPA, US Dept. of Labor.
1983 – The Virginia Commission on Indians is created and later becomes the Va. Council on Indians; in 1991 it becomes a non-funded advisory council to the Governor and General Assembly.
1984 - Peter Houck publishes first edition of Indian Island, showing that the Amherst Indians are in fact Monacans. Indian Island in Amherst County, Lynchburg Historical Research Co., Lynchburg, VA.
1985 – The Daily Press reports on Houck’s book release and gives a synopsis of Monacan history as reported in the book. “Amherst’s Rare Enclave of Monacan Confederacy of Sioux Indians.” The Daily Press, March 24, 1985. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1986-1987 – a day care center is operated by the Monacan people through funding obtained by MPM, Inc., and with assistance from the church, which helped to get insurance for the project. The day care was abandoned because poor weather made the roads too difficult for travel during winter.
1988 – Sherman publishes a discourse on Plecker’s antagonism toward Indians in Rockbridge, Amherst & Augusta Counties. Sherman, Richard B. 1988. “’The Last Stand’: The Fight for Racial Integrity in Virginia in the 1920s.” Journal of Southern History, 54 (1) 75, 80-81, 86.
The Monacan Indian Tribe becomes a state-registered corporation.
1989 – The State of Virginia officially recognizes the Monacan Indian Tribe as the 8th state-recognized tribe, through House Joint Resolution No. 390.
An article about the history of Beverlytown states that two families named Roberts and Beverly started the town and that they were of Indian and white heritage. Taylor, Anne Connolly. “As County Grows, the Mountain Towns Die.” Discover Amherst County, July 20, 1989.
1990 – The Monacan Tribe receives a $5,000 grant from the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities and Public Policy to explore its history.
1991 – The Monacans complete a portable museum exhibit documenting some of the tribe’s history, and publish a brochure “The Monacan: Reclaiming a Heritage”. The University of Virginia NewsLetter publishes a report entitled “Indian Governance in Virginia (C. William Hill, Jr), Vol. 67 No. 5
The Monacan Tribe becomes a voting member of United Indians of Virginia, a nonprofit organization providing a forum for Indian communication in the state.
1992 –A special edition of Lynch’s Ferry magazine is devoted to “the Monacan Mystique” with articles by Hantman, Smith & others, including foreword by Houck, the publisher. Warwick House Publishing: Lynchburg, Spring-Summer 1992.
Mintcy Maxham submits her Master’s thesis on Monacan history, used in collaboration with 2nd edition of Indian Island. Maxim, Mintcy. From Monasukapanough to Bear Mountain: Monacan History, 1607-1992. Unpublished Manuscript, University of Virginia: Charlottesville. Copy, Monacan Tribal Archives.
1993 – The Monacan Tribe obtains nonprofit status as a tax-exempt organization. The tribe receives a $10,000 grant from the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities to develop a museum steering committee. The Monacan Tribe holds its first tribal Powwow, which is very successful. The tribe purchases 110 acres of land on Bear Mountain. Hibbert, Meg. “Monacans Make Plans for Museum.” Amherst New Era Progress. February 24, 1994.
An article describes a forgotten tribe and an event at Sweet Briar College, the Indian Visions Symposium, at which Phyllis Hicks, Monacan, was a featured speaker. Coughlin, Kevin. “Looking for a Past in the Present” and “American Indian Festival Ends with Unity, Harmony.” Lynchburg News & Advance, April 4, p. A-1.
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A tribal scholarship fund is established by R.W. Bryant; an auction raises $1,000 for the fund.
The Times-Dispatch publishes a lengthy article about the Monacans and the revival of their tribal identity. Wagner, Lon. “Reclaiming a Heritage”. Richmond Times-Dispatch, July 1993.
Publication of The Eugenic Assault on America: Scenes in Red, White and Black. Smith, J. David. George Mason University Press, Fairfax, VA. 71-108.
Publication of Indian Island (revised), Houck & Maxim. They assert that if Edgar Whitehead and James Mooney had corresponded, the Monacans would have been correctly identified by 1896.
1994 – The tribe begins negotiations with the Episcopal Diocese to open a museum at the mission property. Hibbert, Meg. “Monacans Make Plans for Museum.” Amherst New Era Progress. February 24, 1994.
The Central Virginia Almanac reports that Lincoln Johns, a Native American from western Amherst County, was for decades one of Central Virginia’s best-known weather prognosticators. He died in 1981. (Includes photo of Lincoln & his wife Lille from 1971). “Try Counting Morning Fogs Next August.” Central Virginia Almanac, Sept. 25, 1994, p. 86. Copy.
Roy Johns and others hold a pig roast to raise additional money for the scholarship fund. “Monacans Planning Pig Roast, Amherst New Era Progress, March 13, 1994.
1995 – The News & Advance interviews Kenneth Branham, new chief of the Monacan tribe, about his history. “Kenneth Brannum, Monacan Indian Chief.” Lynchburg News & Advance, Scene Magazine, July 1995. Copy.
The Episcopal Diocese makes history by returning the deed of 7.5 acres of land, to the Indian mission property to the Monacan tribe. Hibbert, Meg. “Monacans Celebrate Return of Land.” Amherst New Era Progress, October 12, 1995; McKelway, Bill. “On Sacred Ground.” Richmond Times-Dispatch, October 8, 1995.
The Monacan people perform at the Rustburg Public Library for a group of about 150 children. Kaiser, Rob. “Descendants Rediscover Monacan Tribal Heritage. Lynchburg News & Advance, July 14.
1996 – The mission school buildings are accepted into the Virginia Register of Historic Places, Sept. 18. “Monacan Ancestral Land Placed on National Historic List.” Amherst New Era Progress, March 13, 1997. Copy.
1997 – The Bear Mountain mission school and surrounding property are added to the National Register of Historic Places. “Monacan Ancestral Land Placed on National Historic List.” Amherst New Era Progress, March 13. Copy.
The Monacan Tribe requests the Virginia Council on Indians to assist them in pressuring the Bureau of Vital Statistics to change their regulations regarding the correction of tribal members’ birth certificates, regarding the racial designation. Their combined efforts result in Governor George Allen signing a landmark bill that simplifies the process for American Indians to request correct birth certificates. “Allen Signs Bill to Change Birth Record Process.” Lynchburg News & Advance. March 19.
The Monacan Nation is awarded a $65,000 grant from the Administration for Native Americans to document their history and genealogy for a federal recognition petition. “Grant Money Will Help Tribe Get Recognition.” Hibbert, Meg. Amherst New Era Progress, June 19. Copy. “Monacan Grant to Document Descent.” News from Indian Country, July 1997, p. 12A. Copy.
A video documentary about Monacan history, including interviews with tribal members, is completed by Sharon Bryant, a Monacan, with funding from the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. The video airs on Charlottesville cable TV and is used by the College of William and Mary to educate students about the Indian experience in Virginia.